Periodic Table of Elements see Appendix V
About Peter Hayes
Dedication
What this book has to offer
With thanks to
Acknowledgements
Units
Contents
Conversions, Definitions and Physical Constants
PART ONE – EXAMINING THE OPTIONS
1.1 The Importance Of Metals 1
1.2 The Challenges And Opportunities 2
1.3.1 Thinking About The System 6
1.3.2 Methodology For Process Analysis And Process Concept Design 8
References And Suggested Further Reading 22
CHAPTER 2 – PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES OF METALS
2.2.2 Host Rock And Ore Characteristics 25
2.4 Partially Processed Materials 49
2.5 Source Material Characteristics 50
2.5.1 Sampling And Analysis 50
2.5.2 Characteristics Of Solids 51
2.5.3 Examples Of Source Microstructures 54
CHAPTER 3 – LIBERATION, SELECTIVITY AND SEPARATION
3.1 Basis For Separation And Key Forces For Change 73
3.3 Physical Separations Of Solid Mixtures 77
CHAPTER 4 – PHYSICAL SEPARATIONS
4.2 Selection On The Basis Of Size 87
4.2.1 Fracture Of Materials 88
4.2.2 Size Reduction Processes For Brittle Materials 90
4.2.3 Choice Of Size Reduction Circuits 102
4.2.4 The Estimation Of The Power Requirements For Crushing And Grinding 103
4.2.5 Size Reduction Of Ductile Materials 106
4.2.6 Selection On The Basis Of Size 108
4.3 Separation On The Basis Of Density 125
4.3.1 Solid/Liquid Separations 125
4.3.2 Liquid/Liquid Separation 133
4.3.3 Gas/Liquid Separations 135
4.4 Separation On The Basis Of Magnetic Properties 137
4.4.1 Material Characteristics 137
4.4.2 Process Characteristics 139
4.4.3 Magnetic Separation Processes 140
4.5 Separation On The Basis Of Electrical Properties 149
4.5.1 Material Characteristics 149
4.5.2 Process Characteristics 152
4.6 Separation On The Basis Of Surface Chemistry Properties 155
4.6.1 Material Characteristics 156
4.6.2 Machine Characteristics 162
4.7 Bulk Materials Handling 165
4.8.1 Solid-Liquid Separation 170
4.8.3 Recycling Of Non-Metal Components In The Circular Economy 175
4.9 Some Economic Characteristics Of Mineral Processing Operations 176
CHAPTER 5 – HIGH TEMPERATURE PROCESSING
5.1.1 General Characteristics Of High Temperature Processes And Alternative Processing Routes 190
5.2 Processes Aimed At Separation 201
5.2.1 Vapour Phase Separation 201
5.2.2 Chemical Changes In The Solid State 210
5.2.3 Liquid/Liquid Separation 214
5.2.4 Technologies Used For Smelting And Melting 224
5.4.2 Metal Production From Metal Oxides 241
5.4.3 Metal Production From Metal Sulphides 252
5.4.3 Metal Production From Metal Halides 263
5.5.1 Introduction Of A New Phase Into The System 266
5.5.2 Addition Of A Reactant Chemical Species 267
5.5.3 Control Of Temperature 275
5.5.4 Integrated Refining Operations 279
5.6 Environmental Issues Associated With High Temperature Processes 286
5.7 Economic Characteristics Of Pyrometallurgical Processes 290
5.7.1 Solid-Gas And Solid-Solid Reactions 290
5.7.2 Liquid/Liquid Reactions 291
CHAPTER 6 – AQUEOUS SOLUTION PROCESSING
6.1.1 General Characteristics Of Hydrometallurgical Processes 303
6.2 Processes Aimed At Separation 305
6.2.1.1 Material Properties 305
6.2.1.2 Pretreatment Of Ores Prior To Leaching 306
6.2.1.3 Selection Of Leaching Conditions 308
6.2.1.4 Leaching Techniques 326
6.2.2 Separation Of Impurities From Leach Solutions 330
6.2.2.1 Liquid/Solid Ion Exchange 331
6.2.2.2 Solvent Extraction Reactions 339
6.3.1 Control Of Temperature – Crystallisation 352
6.3.2 Selective Precipitation Using Ph 360
6.3.3 Chemical Precipitation Of Metal Compounds 362
6.4.1 Reduction With Another Metal 366
6.4.3 Chemical Precipitation 374
6.6 Storage, Mixing And Transfer Of Liquids 374
6.7 Environmental Issues Associated With Hydrometallurgical Processes 379
6.7.1 General Characteristics 379
6.7.2 Solution Purification Techniques 380
6.8 Economic Characteristics Of Hydrometallurgical Processes 384
6.8.2 Solution Purification 385
CHAPTER 7 – ELECTROCHEMICAL PROCESSING
7.1.1 General Characteristics Of Electrochemical Reactions 399
7.1.2 Factors Affecting The Design Of Electrochemical Reactors 408
7.2 Processes Aimed At Separation 413
7.6 Environmental Effects Of Electrometallurgical Processes 438
7.7 Economic Characteristics Of Electrometallurgical Processes 439
CHAPTER 8 – PRODUCT PREPARATION AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
8.2 Production Of Components From Solid Materials 447
8.2.1 Batching, Mixing And Agglomeration 447
8.2.2 Shape Forming Processes 450
8.2.3 Drying And Removal Of Volatile Components 454
8.2.4 High Temperature Consolidation 454
8.3 Production Of Metal Components By Liquid Phase Processing 462
8.3.1 Metal Solidification Processes 462
8.3.2 Control Of Microstructure On Solidification 466
8.3.6 Melt Stirring, Superheat And Heat Flow Patterns 477
8.4 Heat And Mechanical Treatment Of Metals 481
8.4.1 Stress Relief And Recrystallisation 481
8.4.2 Production Of Multi-Phase Solid Materials 484
8.4.3 Mechanical And Thermomechanical Treatment 490
9.3.1 Fixed And Working Capital 496
9.3.2 Rapid Cost Estimation Techniques 496
9.3.3 Summary Of Investment Costing 498
9.5 Relationships Between Process Selection, Production And Economic Performance 499
9.5.1 A Simple Model Of Economic Performance 499
9.5.2 Relative Magnitudes Of Process Costs 501
9.7 Scoping, Pre-Feasibility And Feasibility Studies 510
CHAPTER 10 – THE ROLE OF METALS IN A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE
PART TWO – ESSENTIAL TOOLS FOR ANALYSIS
CHAPTER A – PREDICTING THE OUTCOMES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
A.2.1 Heat, Work And The Conservation Of Energy 526
A.2.2 State Functions And Changes In State 529
A.2.3 Heat Capacity And Enthalpy 529
A.2.5 Reactions Involving Non-Standard Conditions 536
A.2.6 Activities And Standard States 540
A.2.7 Electrochemical Reactions 544
A.2.8 Electrode Potentials 545
A.3 Presentation Of Thermodynamic Information 550
A.3.2 Predominance Diagrams 553
A.4 Activities In Concentrated Solutions 577
CHAPTER B – MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE TECHNIQUES
B.1.2 A Methodology For Solving Material And Energy Balances 581
B.1.3 Simple Material Balances 584
B.1.4 General Algebraic Method 588
B.2.3 Enthalpy Changes For Phase Transitions 596
B.2.4 Heat Of Formation And Heat Of Reaction 597
B.2.5 Energy Balances Of Reactive Systems 599
B.2.6 The General Form Of The Energy Balance Equation 606
B.3 Treatment Of Data From Operating Systems 611
B.3.2 Obtaining Representative Samples And Measurements 611
B.3.3 The Use Of Data In Process Analysis 612
CHAPTER C – RATES OF MASS AND HEAT TRANSFER, AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN METALLURGICAL SYSTEMS
C.2 Mass And Heat Transfer Processes 618
C.2.3 Diffusional Processes 628
C.2.4 Mass And Heat Transfer Across Interfaces 640
C.2.5 Heat Transfer By Radiation 642
C.3 Chemical Reaction Kinetics 643
C.3.1 Chemical Reaction Stoichiometry 643
C.3.2 Degree Of Completion Of Reactions 643
C.3.3 Empirical Rate Equations 644
C.3.4 Reaction Rate Theory 645
C.3.5 Kinetics Of Electrochemical Reactions 650
C.4.1 The Rates Of Fluid/Solid Reactions 654
C.4.2 Batch Versus Continuous Processing 655
C.4.3 Characteristics Of Continuous Processing Reactors 656
C.4.4 Predicting The Number And Volumes Of Reactors Required 657
C.4.5 Performance Of Non-Ideal Reactors 660
C.4.6 Perfectly Mixed Reactors In Series With Chemical Reaction 661
C.4.7 Heterogeneous Reactions 663
PART THREE – SOURCES OF DATA ON CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL SYSTEMS
CHAPTER D – SOURCES OF DATA ON CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL SYSTEMS
D.1 Metals And Inorganic Compounds 675
D.1.1 Standard Thermodynamic Functions 675
D.1.2 Standard Reduction Potentials 688
D.2 Activities And Calculations For Non-Standard Conditions 694
D.2.1 Tools For The Calculation Of Equilibria 694
D.2.2 Metal Alloys And Inorganic Melts 695
D.2.3.1 Activities In Strong Aqueous Solutions (Peters) 698
II Bonding And Structures Of Solids And Liquids 713
III The Origin Of Magnetic Properties Of Materials 725
IV Mechanical Properties Of Materials 735